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Includes how children learn to read and write, typically progressing through stages: the pre-phonemic stage (scribbling, letter-like shapes), phonemic stage (understanding that letters represent sounds), transitional stage (starting to write words phonetically and read simple texts), and the conventional stage (fluent reading and accurate spelling). Theorists include Jeanne Chall, who outlined stages from pre-reading to advanced reading, and Goodman, who viewed reading as a “psycholinguistic guessing game” using context and prediction. Approaches to teaching include the phonics approach (focus on decoding sounds), whole language (emphasis on meaning and context), and a balanced approach combining both. Key terms include phonemic awareness, decoding, encoding, grapheme–phoneme correspondence, and the importance of exposure to print and modelling by adults.