51ºÚÁÏ

Specification Section: 3.2.1 Research Methods

1. Experimental Method

Types of Experiments
Lab experiments, high control, artificial setting
Field experiments, real-world setting
Natural experiments, IV occurs naturally, no manipulation
Quasi-experiments, IV is a characteristic (e.g., gender), not manipulated

Variables
Independent Variable (IV)
Dependent Variable (D.V)
Extraneous and confounding variables

O.p.e.r.a.t.i.o.n.a.l.i.s.a.t.i.o.n
Experimental Designs
Independent groups
Repeated measures
Matched pairs

Control Measures
Random allocation
Counterbalancing
S.t.a.n.d.a.r.d.i.s.a.t.i.o.n

Control of variables
2. Non-Experimental Methods

Observational Techniques
Naturalistic vs Controlled
Covert vs Overt
Participant vs Non-participant observation
B.e.h.a.v.i.o.u.r.a.l categories and coding frames
Inter-observer reliability

Self-Report Techniques
Questionnaires: open vs closed questions
Interviews: structured, unstructured, semi-structured

Correlations
Relationship between two co-variables
Positive, negative, or zero correlation
S.c.a.t.t.e.r.g.r.a.m.s
Correlation/causation

1. Scientific Processes

Aims and Hypotheses
Null and alternative hypotheses
Directional and non-directional

Sampling Methods
Random, opportunity, volunteer, stratified, systematic
Strengths and weaknesses

Pilot Studies
Purpose: refine procedures, test materials
Identifies potential issues before the main study

Ethics
Informed consent
Right to withdraw
Protection from harm
Confidentiality and privacy
Deception
Ethical guidelines (BPS)

1. Data Handling and Analysis

Types of Data
Quantitative vs Qualitative
Primary vs Secondary

Descriptive Statistics:
Measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode)
Measures of dispersion (range, standard deviation)

Graphical Representation
Bar charts, histograms, line graphs
Tables
S.c.a.t.t.e.r.g.r.a.m.s
Normal and skewed distributions

1. Inferential Testing

Levels of Measurement
Nominal, Ordinal, Interval

Choosing a Statistical Test
Use of NO RIC (Nature of Design, Relationship, and Type of Data)
Criteria:
Test of difference or correlation
Experimental design
Level of measurement

Types of Tests
Sign Test
Chi-square test
Mann-Whitney U
W.i.l.c.o.x.o.n
S.p.e.a.r.m.a.n.s rho
Unrelated and Related t-tests
P.e.a.r.s.o.n.s. r

Key Concepts
Critical values
Calculated vs critical value
One-tailed vs two-tailed tests
Significance levels typically p values
Type I and Type II errors

1. Report Writing and Peer Review

Sections of a Report
Title
Abstract
Introduction
Method (Design, Participants, Materials, Procedure)
Results (Descriptive + Inferential stats)
Discussion
References

Peer Review
Role in validating research quality
Detecting fraud and ensuring accuracy
Potential biases and limitations